Surveillance for Selected Pathogens and Parasites of Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) from Western Oklahoma, USA, 2018-20.

The Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) has been undergoing a range-wide population decline. Potential causes for declines across its historic range have been investigated for decades and include habitat loss and fragmentation and a variety of parasitic and infectious diseases. Although there have been studies on bobwhite ecology in Oklahoma, USA, relatively little is known about parasites and pathogens in the region. We evaluated the health of free-ranging bobwhites from nine sites in western Oklahoma. From 2018 to 2020, 206 bobwhites were evaluated for gross and microscopic lesions and tested for selected pathogens. In general, bobwhites were in good nutritional condition with ample muscle mass and fat stores. No significant gross lesions were observed in any bobwhite and no significant histologic lesions were detected in a subset. There was no evidence of infection with or exposure to reticuloendotheliosis virus, West Nile virus, respiratory Mycoplasmataceae species, Pasteurella multocida, intestinal Eimeria spp., or oral Trichomonas spp. Several pathogens of potential concern were detected, including avian adenovirus (8.6%), Toxoplasma gondii (2.3%), and haemosporidians (a Haemoproteus sp. (1.5%), Leucocytozoon schoutedeni (1.5%), and Plasmodium homopolare haplotype 2 [lineage LAIRI01; 3.6%]). Physaloptera sp. (12%) and Sarcocystis sp. (1%) were detected in the breast muscle. Low intraspecific genetic diversity was noted for Physaloptera sp., and sequences were most similar to Physaloptera sequences from bobwhites and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) in Texas. Low intensities of chewing lice, chiggers, and ticks were observed. A subset of bobwhites had evidence of exposure to selected toxicants and heavy metals; a small number had low levels of iron, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and copper, which were not considered diagnostically relevant. In general, bobwhites from western Oklahoma appeared to be in good health with a low diversity of pathogens detected, but future work is needed to understand potentially changing disease risks for this population.

IMPLICATIONS OF TREATING PARASITIC INFECTION IN NORTHERN BOBWHITE (COLINUS VIRGINIANUS) ON OVERALL HELMINTH LIFE CYCLE.

This study was conducted to determine how reducing the parasite burden in a definitive host may affect the prevalence in intermediate hosts. Here we used the eyeworm Oxyspirura petrowi and cecal worm Aulonocephalus pennula as model species. Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were provided an anthelmintic medicated feed in wild systems because of convincing evidence that these parasites were suppressing their populations. Eyeworm and cecal worm prevalence were measured in Orthopterans, which act as intermediate hosts, using polymerase chain reaction. Individuals were collected from a control site, a site treated for 2 yr, and a site treated for 5 yr. Orthopteran community composition was significantly different among the sites; however, an interaction between subfamily and site was not significant for the eyeworm. There was a significant reduction in eyeworm-infected Orthopterans on the 5-yr site compared with the other 2, suggesting that treatment of a definitive host may indeed affect the prevalence of eyeworms during other life-cycle stages. There was an interaction between the Orthopteran subfamily and the site for the cecal worm, so results were analyzed within each subfamily. A significant reduction in the prevalence of cecal worms was only found in the Cyrtacanthacridinae subfamily on the 5-yr site when compared with the other sites. However, the greatest prevalence in the Gomphocerinae and Oedipodinae subfamilies across all 3 sites was 4.1%. This indicates an unknown degree of cecal worm host specificity. Therefore, conclusions could not be made through the simple assessment of prevalence.

Health impacts of gastrointestinal and ocular parasites in northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in western Oklahoma, USA.

The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) is a popular upland game bird that is suffering from severe and ongoing population decline. In this study, we investigated the potential health impacts of gastrointestinal and periorbital parasites in bobwhite in western Oklahoma, USA. A sample of 206 bobwhites from 2018 to 2020 indicated a low prevalence and diversity of parasites. However, at least one gastrointestinal or ocular parasite species was detected in 112 bobwhite (54.4%). A total of three gastrointestinal parasite species were detected, including Aulonocephalus pennula (54% prevalence, mean intensity 71.6 ± 99.8), Raillietina spp. (7%, 4.2 ± 1.9), and a single immature Mediorhynchus sp. acanthocephalan (0.5%). Burdens of A. pennula infections were negatively associated with fat stores in their bobwhite host. Low intensities (range 1-10, mean 3.9 ± 2.9) of eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi) were observed in 12.6% (26/206) of bobwhite sampled and were not associated with fat stores. No significant histologic lesions were associated with O. petrowi worms in ocular and surrounding tissues of 68 quail eyes examined, of which 26 (38%) were positive for eyeworms. Overall, the prevalence and intensity of parasites in bobwhite in Oklahoma were lower than in previous studies in Texas in similar physiographic regions. However, continued studies on the impacts of these parasites on quail health are needed as environmental and climate changes could alter the ecology and significance of these parasites.

EXPLORING A PLANT-DIVERSITY HYPOTHESIS TO EXPLAIN HELMINTH PREVALENCE IN NORTHERN BOBWHITE (COLINUS VIRGINIANUS) IN TEXAS, USA.

Helminths, in particular eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi) and cecal worms (Aulonocephalus pennula), may be a factor influencing northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations in Texas. Previous research has shown a discrepancy in helminth infections between the Rolling Plains and Rio Grande Plains of Texas, US, potentially caused by differences in intermediate host distribution and abundance. We explored an alternative hypothesis centered on plant diversity, given that many plants possess phytochemicals with anthelmintic properties. We predicted that plant diversity would be greater and bobwhite diet more diverse in the Rio Grande Plains than the Rolling Plains, which in turn would potentially expose bobwhites to more plants with anthelmintic properties and therefore result in lower parasite prevalence and intensity. We conducted a literature review of plant diversity, anthelmintic plants, and bobwhite diet in Texas to explore this hypothesis. We also quantified the relationship between helminth prevalence in bobwhites and latitude. We documented trends for higher plant species richness, greater number of anthelmintic plants, and more diverse bobwhite diet in the Rio Grande Plains compared to the Rolling Plains. In addition, we documented a trend for increasing helminth prevalence with latitude for eyeworms but not cecal worms. Our study provides circumstantial evidence supporting the plant-diversity hypothesis and warrants experimental testing.

MOLECULAR IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT INTERMEDIATE HOSTS WITH POTENTIAL PARASITE TRANSMISSION TO THE DEFINITIVE HOST NORTHERN BOBWHITE (COLINUS VIRGINIANUS).

Grassland birds have been declining substantially for the past several years. Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation as well as climate change are all thought to be the main drivers of the decline. However, as the declines continue to accelerate, it is becoming imperative to examine other factors that may contribute to population fluctuations. The nematodes Oxyspirura petrowi, Aulonocephalus pennula, and Physaloptera sp. are commonly found infecting northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), a game species of economic importance, and all 3 nematodes use insects as an intermediate host. Here we used polymerase chain reaction techniques to determine the occurrence of the 3 nematodes in 7 insect orders to uncover epidemiological patterns of the greatest potential for transmission to northern bobwhite. Insects were collected from March through September using sweep nets and pitfall traps. An R × C chi-squared test with Monte Carlo simulation was used to determine differences in the occurrence of the parasites across taxa and time. The results of the statistical analysis showed the nematodes are predominantly found in the order Orthoptera, and A. pennula and Physaloptera sp. showed epidemiological patterns in insects. However, no such pattern was observed with O. petrowi. An explanation for the lack of epidemiological pattern in O. petrowi is proposed and the diversity of known insect hosts of the 3 nematodes is increased.

Validation of an LC-MS/MS method for assessment of fenbendazole sulfone drug residue in northern bobwhite liver.

The Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) is an economically important game bird within the Rolling Plains Ecoregion. Within this region, bobwhite is experiencing extreme cyclic population fluctuations which are resulting in a net decline in total population. It is suspected that within this region two helminth parasites, an eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and a cecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula), are contributing to this phenomenon. However, this has been difficult to study as the primary mode of investigation would be the deployment of anthelmintic treatment. Unfortunately, no registered treatments for wild bobwhite currently exist. Thus, utilizing an anthelmintictreatment for wild bobwhite would require registration of that treatment with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). As bobwhite are game birds that are hunted, they are considered food-producing animals to the FDA, and as such require the assessment for the withdrawal of the drug residues to be assessed for human food safety. In this study, we optimized and validated a bioanalytical method for the quantification of fenbendazole sulfone in bobwhite following the U.S. FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine Guidance for Industry #208 [VICH GL 49 (R)] for assessment of fenbendazole sulfone drug residue in Northern bobwhite liver. The official method for quantifying fenbendazole sulfone in domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) was adapted for use in bobwhite. The validated method quantitation range is 2.5-30 ng/mL for fenbendazole with an average recovery of 89.9% in bobwhite liver.

A Helminth Survey of Northern Bobwhite Quail (Colinus virginianus) and Passerines in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas.

The Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) is a popular game bird that has been experiencing a well-documented decline throughout Texas since the 1960s. While much of this decline has been attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation, recent studies have identified other factors that may also contribute to decreasing quail populations. Parasites, in particular, have become increasingly recognized as possible stressors of quail, and some species, particularly the eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and cecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) are highly prevalent in Texas quails. Eyeworm infection has also been documented in some passerines, suggesting helminth infection may be shared between bird species. However, the lack of comprehensive helminth surveys has rendered the extent of shared infection between quail and passerines in the ecoregion unclear. Thus, helminth surveys were conducted on bobwhite, scaled quail (Callipepla squamata), Northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos), curve-billed thrashers (Toxistoma curvirostre), and Northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) to contribute data to existing parasitological gaps for birds in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas. Birds were trapped across 3 counties in the Texas Rolling Plains from March to October 2019. Necropsies were conducted on 54 individuals (36 quail and 18 passerines), and extracted helminths were microscopically identified. Nematode, cestode, and acanthocephalan helminths representing at least 10 helminth species were found. Specifically, A. pennula and O. petrowi had the highest prevalence, and O. petrowi was documented in all of the study species. This research adds to the body of knowledge regarding parasitic infections in quail and passerines of the Rolling Plains ecoregion and highlights the potential consequences of shared infection of eyeworms among these bird species.

Assessment of the helminth fauna in northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) occurring within South Texas.

Populations of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus; hereafter bobwhite) have been declining across their geographic range in North America, prompting consideration of the role parasites may play. We conducted this study to learn about the helminth fauna in South Texas, a region that supports a sustainable bobwhite population. Helminths were examined from 356 bobwhites collected during the 2014-2015 (n = 124) and 2015-2016 (n = 232) hunting seasons, when increasing trends in precipitation were observed in comparison with the previous two years. Ten helminth species were found, consisting of 14,127 individuals. Of these, all are heteroxenous parasites and three are pathogenic (Dispharynx nasuta, Tetrameres pattersoni and Oxyspirura petrowi). Aulonocephalus pennula numerically dominated the component community (81% prevalence, 99% of the total helminths found), whereas each of the remaining species occurred rarely (≤9% prevalence) and contributed few individuals (≤0.4%) to the helminth community. Prevalence and abundance of A. pennula were not influenced by host age, sex or body mass, but abundance was higher during the 2014-2015 than the 2015-2016 hunting season. Our findings indicate that the helminth community in bobwhites from South Texas can vary during long-term, highly variable precipitation conditions and these communities are more similar to those found in the Rolling Plains of Texas than those found in the eastern part of the bobwhite's geographic range in the US.

Molecular Identification of Oxyspirura Petrowi Intermediate Hosts by Nested PCR Using Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 (ITS1).

Recently, the heteroxenous eyeworm, Oxyspirura petrowi, has gained attention due to its prevalence in the declining game bird, Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), but the intermediate hosts of many nematodes remain unknown. However, identifying the intermediate host of O. petrowi with traditional techniques would be difficult and time-consuming, especially considering there are more than 80 potential orthopteran hosts just in Texas. To screen a large number of samples quickly and effectively, primers for nested PCR (nPCR) were developed using the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region. Then the nPCR was used to identify which of the 35 species collected from the Order Orthoptera were potential intermediate hosts of O. petrowi. With this technique, 18 potential intermediate hosts were identified. Later, we collected live specimens of species that tested positive to confirm the presence of larvae, but larvae were not found in the live specimens, nor in the extra tissue of the species that had tested positive for O. petrowi DNA. Despite this, this study demonstrated that nPCR is more sensitive than traditional techniques and can be a valuable tool in determining the intermediate hosts of parasites.

Life-cycle of Oxyspirura petrowi (Spirurida: Thelaziidae), an eyeworm of the northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).

BACKGROUND: Oxyspirura petrowi (Spirurida: Thelaziidae), a heteroxenous nematode of birds across the USA, may play a role in the decline of the northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of West Texas. Previous molecular studies suggest that crickets, grasshoppers and cockroaches serve as potential intermediate hosts of O. petrowi, although a complete study on the life-cycle of this nematode has not been conducted thus far. Consequently, this study aims to improve our understanding of the O. petrowi life-cycle by experimentally infecting house crickets (Acheta domesticus) with O. petrowi eggs, feeding infected crickets to bobwhite and assessing the life-cycle of this nematode in both the definitive and intermediate hosts. METHODS: Oxyspirura petrowi eggs were collected from gravid worms recovered from wild bobwhite and fed to house crickets. The development of O. petrowi within crickets was monitored by dissection of crickets at specified intervals. When infective larvae were found inside crickets, parasite-free pen-raised bobwhite were fed four infected crickets each. The maturation of O. petrowi in bobwhite was monitored through fecal floats and bobwhite necropsies at specified intervals. RESULTS: In this study, we were able to infect both crickets (n = 45) and bobwhite (n = 25) with O. petrowi at a rate of 96%. We successfully replicated and monitored the complete O. petrowi life-cycle in vivo, recovering embryonated O. petrowi eggs from the feces of bobwhite 51 days after consumption of infected crickets. All life-cycle stages of O. petrowi were confirmed in both the house cricket and the bobwhite using morphological and molecular techniques. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a better understanding of the infection mechanism and life-cycle of O. petrowi by tracking the developmental progress within both the intermediate and definitive host. To our knowledge, this study is the first to fully monitor the complete life-cycle of O. petrowi and may allow for better estimates into the potential for future epizootics of O. petrowi in bobwhite. Finally, this study provides a model for experimental infection that may be used in research examining the effects of O. petrowi infection in bobwhite.

Quantitative analysis of Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) cytokines and TLR expression to eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) glycoproteins.

Helminth parasites have been a popular research topic due to their global prevalence and adverse effects on livestock and game species. The Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), a popular game bird in the USA, is one species subject to helminth infection and has been experiencing a decline of > 4% annually over recent decades. In the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas, the eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) helminths are found to be highly prevalent in bobwhite. While there have been increasing studies on the prevalence, pathology, and phylogeny of the eyeworm and caecal worm, there is still a need to investigate the bobwhite immune response to infection. This study utilizes previously sequenced bobwhite cytokines and toll-like receptors to develop and optimize qPCR primers and measure gene expression in bobwhite intramuscularly challenged with eyeworm and caecal worm glycoproteins. For the challenge experiments, separate treatments of eyeworm and caecal worm glycoproteins were administered to bobwhite on day 1 and day 21. Measurements of primary and secondary immune responses were taken at day 7 and day 28, respectively. Using the successfully optimized qPCR primers for TLR7, IL1ß, IL6, IFNα, IFNγ, IL10, and ß-actin, the gene expression analysis from the challenge experiments revealed that there was a measurable immune reaction in bobwhite in response to the intramuscular challenge of eyeworm and caecal worm glycoproteins.

Molecular identification of potential intermediate hosts of Aulonocephalus pennula from the order Orthoptera.

Aulonocephalus pennula is a heteroxenous nematode that commonly infects a declining game bird, the northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). There is a lack of information on the life cycle of A. pennula and the potential effects of infection on bobwhites. In order to better understand the life cycle of this parasite, various species from the order Orthoptera were collected from a field site in Mitchell County, Texas. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nine potential intermediate hosts were identified from the 35 orthopteran species collected. Later, ten live specimens were collected to identify larvae within the potential intermediate hosts. Larvae were present in three of these and were sent for sequencing. Similarly, the presence of larvae was confirmed from extra tissues of samples identified as positive with PCR. This was the first study to document potential intermediate hosts, but future studies are needed to confirm that these species are capable of transmitting infection to bobwhite. However, this study demonstrates that PCR has increased sensitivity and may be a valuable tool when determining intermediate hosts.

Helminth community and host dynamics in northern bobwhites from the Rolling Plains Ecoregion, U.S.A.

One hundred and sixty-one northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus; hereafter 'bobwhite') were examined from the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and western Oklahoma from 2011 to 2013. Complete necropsies yielded 13 species, of which two are new host (Gongylonema phasianella) and region (Eucoleus contortus) records and three (Dispharynx nasuta, Tetrameres pattersoni and Oxyspirura petrowi) are known to cause morbidity and mortality. Of the species found, Aulonocephalus pennula commonly occurred, Oxyspirura petrowi was intermediate in prevalence, and the remaining species were rare. Species richness was similar compared to studies from the southeastern U.S., but higher than studies from the same region. In addition, 12 of the 13 species were heteroxenous helminths, supporting the theory that heteroxenous helminths in semi-arid regions are more successful than monoxenous helminths. Prevalence and abundance of A. pennula and O. petrowi were higher in adult bobwhites than in juveniles. Abundance of A. pennula and O. petrowi was higher at southern locations compared to northern locations in the study area. Our study is the first to provide a current assessment of the bobwhite helminth community across the Rolling Plains ecoregion of the U.S.

Molecular identification of Physaloptera sp. from wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas.

Physaloptera spp. are common nematodes found in the stomach and muscles of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Physaloptera spp. have a complicated life cycle with multiple definitive hosts, arthropod intermediate hosts, aberrant infections, and possible second intermediate hosts or paratenic hosts. For example, Physaloptera sp. larvae have been found within the tissues of wild northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), and it is suspected that quail may serve as paratenic or secondary hosts of these parasites. However, because it is not known what role quail play in the life cycle of Physaloptera spp. and descriptions of Physaloptera spp. larvae are limited, molecular tools may be beneficial when identifying these helminths. In this study, we generated primers using universal nematode primers and obtained a partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX 1) sequence. Morphological identification of Physaloptera sp. in bobwhite was confirmed via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the maximum likelihood method. BLAST analysis revealed a strong identity to other Physaloptera spp. and the phylogenetic tree placed all Physaloptera spp. in the same cluster. We also documented a marked increase in Physaloptera infections in bobwhite from 2017 to 2018, and the similarity of these parasites to Onchocerca volvulus and Wuchereria bancrofti may give insight into the increased prevalence we observed. This study demonstrates the usefulness of molecular techniques to confirm the identity of species that may lack adequate descriptions and provides new insight for the diagnosis and potentially overlooked significance of Physaloptera sp. infections of bobwhite in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas.

Development of a multiplex quantitative PCR assay for eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) detection in Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) of the Rolling Plains Ecoregion, Texas.

The Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) is an economically significant gamebird that has experienced a decline throughout the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas. Recent surveys of this area have revealed a high prevalence in eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) infection that may contribute to this decline. In order to further understand these parasites role in bobwhite populations, a time-, and cost-effective multiplex quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay was developed in this study to detect eyeworm and caecal worm infection through egg detection using the ITS2 and COX1 gene region, respectively. Method validation for the qPCR involved bobwhite fecal samples from the Rolling Plains as well as samples spiked with eyeworm, caecal worm, and bobwhite DNA. Results showed an observed increasing qPCR parasite egg detection with increasing worm burdens. Future uses with this assay can also provide insight to seasonal parasite infection and the life cycles of eyeworm and caecal worm.

Multiyear Survey of Coccidia, Cryptosporidia, Microsporidia, Histomona, and Hematozoa in Wild Quail in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma, USA.

We developed nested PCR protocols and performed a multiyear survey on the prevalence of several protozoan parasites in wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma (i.e. fecal pellets, bird intestines and blood smears collected between 2010 and 2013). Coccidia, cryptosporidia, and microsporidia were detected in 46.2%, 11.7%, and 44.0% of the samples (n = 687), whereas histomona and hematozoa were undetected. Coccidia consisted of one major and two minor Eimeria species. Cryptosporidia were represented by a major unknown Cryptosporidium species and Cryptosporidium baileyi. Detected microsporidia species were highly diverse, in which only 11% were native avian parasites including Encephalitozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon cuniculi, whereas 33% were closely related to species from insects (e.g. Antonospora, Liebermannia, and Sporanauta). This survey suggests that coccidia infections are a significant risk factor in the health of wild quail while cryptosporidia and microsporidia may be much less significant than coccidiosis. In addition, the presence of E. hellem and E. cuniculi (known to cause opportunistic infections in humans) suggests that wild quail could serve as a reservoir for human microsporidian pathogens, and individuals with compromised or weakened immunity should probably take precautions while directly handling wild quail.

A Quantitative PCR Protocol for Detection of Oxyspirura petrowi in Northern Bobwhites (Colinus virginianus).

Oxyspirura petrowi is a parasitic nematode that infects wild birds. This parasite has a broad host range, but has recently been reported in high prevalences from native Galliformes species in the United States. In order to better understand the impact O. petrowi has on wild bird populations, we developed a quantitative PCR protocol to detect infections in wild northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). We used paired fecal and cloacal swab samples from wild caught and experimentally infected northern bobwhites and matching fecal float data from experimentally infected birds to validate our assay. Overall we detected more positive birds from fecal samples than the paired cloacal swabs and there was strong agreement between the qPCR results from fecal samples and from fecal flotation (84%; κ = 0.69 [0.53-0.84 95% CI]). We also detected O. petrowi DNA in ten replicates of samples spiked with one O. petrowi egg. This qPCR assay is an effective assay to detect O. petrowi infections in wild birds. Our results suggest that fecal samples are the most appropriate sample for detecting infections; although, cloacal swabs can be useful for determining if O. petrowi is circulating in a population.

HELMINTH INFECTIONS IN NORTHERN BOBWHITES (COLINUS VIRGINIANUS) FROM A LEGACY LANDSCAPE IN TEXAS, USA.

The Northern Bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus ) has declined across its range. The primary cause of this decline is thought to be habitat loss and fragmentation. However, there is speculation that factors such as parasites may play a role. South Texas recently was designated a Legacy Landscape of National Significance for Northern Bobwhite Conservation and is a region with some of the highest bobwhite densities in the US. Limited studies on bobwhite parasites have been conducted in this crucial landscape. We documented helminth parasites infecting bobwhites in South Texas, identified those that are known to be pathogenic to quail, documented pathologic responses to infection, and evaluated infections related to host intrinsic and extrinsic factors. We examined 209 bobwhites and found nine species of helminths including two known to cause tissue damage in bobwhites: Tetrameres pattersoni and Oxyspirura petrowi. The cecal nematode Aulonocephalus pennula was numerically dominant and had the greatest prevalence, intensity, and abundance. Prevalence and abundance of A. pennula were significantly greater in adult than juvenile bobwhites, whereas host sex was not an important factor. Prevalence of A. pennula was significantly greater during the 2012-13 hunting season than the 2013-14 season. The abundance of A. pennula also was significantly greater in bobwhites with greater mass within each age cohort. This research provides insight regarding the factors that influence helminth infections in bobwhites from South Texas and highlights the importance of broad-scale surveys when assessing helminth infections across large regions.

EYEWORMS (OXYSPIRURA PETROWI) IN NORTHERN BOBWHITES (COLINUS VIRGINIANUS) FROM THE ROLLING PLAINS ECOREGION OF TEXAS AND OKLAHOMA, 2011-13.

The Northern Bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus ) has been steadily declining throughout much of its historic range for decades. The Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and western Oklahoma, historically rich with wild Northern Bobwhites and one of the last remaining quail strongholds, also has a declining population. During August and October in 2011-13, 348 Northern Bobwhites from the Rolling Plains were examined for eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi). Of these 348 Northern Bobwhites, 144 (41.4%) were infected with 1,018 total eyeworms. Eyeworm abundance (mean±SE) was 2.9±0.4 (range 0-64), with an intensity (mean±SE) of 7.1±0.6. Eyeworm prevalence was significantly higher in adult Northern Bobwhites (58.7%) than in juveniles (35.4%). Recent research suggests that eyeworms have the potential to cause cellular tissue damage to the eye, but it is unknown how these worms affect host survivability. This study further expands the regional distribution of O. petrowi in Northern Bobwhites in the Rolling Plains ecoregion and assesses the prevalence and abundance of infection across host age, host sex, and year. Further research is warranted on the life history of O. petrowi and assessing the impacts of eyeworms on their definitive host at individual and population levels.

Two recently sequenced vertebrate genomes are contaminated with apicomplexan species of the Sarcocystidae family.

This paper highlights a general problem, namely that host genome sequences can easily be contaminated with parasite sequences, thus careful isolation of genetic material and careful bioinformatics analysis are needed in all cases. Two recently published genomes are shown here to be contaminated with sequences of apicomplexan parasites which belong to the Sarcocystidae family. Sequences of the characteristic apicomplexan organelle, the apicoplast, were used as queries in BLASTN searches against nucleotide sequences of various animal groups looking for possible contamination. Draft genomes of a bird, Colinus virginianus (Halley et al., 2014), and a bat, Myotis davidii (Zhang et al., 2013) were found to contain at least six and 17 contigs, respectively, originating from the apicoplast of an apicomplexan species, and other genes specific to this phylum can also be found in the published genomes. Obviously, the sources of the genetic material, the muscle and the kidney of the animals, respectively, contained the parasitic cysts. Phylogenetic analyses using 18S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer 1 genes show that the parasite contaminating C. virginianus is a species of Sarcocystis related to ones known to cycle between avian and mammalian hosts. In the case of M. davidii it belongs to the Nephroisospora genus, the only member of which, Nephroisospora eptesici, has been recently identified from the kidney of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus).